پژوهشنامه مکتب های ادبی
پیاپی 17 (بهار 1401)

The idea of Modernity expresses the novelty of the present time following therupture with the past and at the same time acceptance of the near but unknownfuture; what is reflected in dual approach of Forough Farrokhzad to modernity isaccepting and criticizing it. Forough Farrokhzad is one of new Nima’i poets, whois considered the most modern contemporary poet for certain reasons such aspoetry format, language and expression, new descriptions, report of a woman’sindividual receipts of instinctive and love relationships and special attention tothe physical aspect of love, individualism, humanism, equality, liberalism,socialism, global attitude and so on, but on the other hand, she is also a critic ofmodernity and its values in the aimless society of the 50s and 60s. Thisdescriptive- analytical article attempts to study Forough’s critical approach tomodernity by exploring the reasons and basics of this criticism in Forough’spoems. This survey shows that Forough’s critical approach is mostly cultural,since in her opinion the structural and cultural contexts of modernity are not stillprovided within Iranian society and as a result, modernization policies of the 60shave resulted in emergence of prescriptive and problematic modernity.Accordingly, Forough, as the most modern intellectual of this period,understands the tensions of this unbalanced society the most and her worksexpress a sense of insecurity, alienation and cultural frustration in an incongruoustraditional society that is experiencing a transitional phase.

In Hafez Shirazi's divan, there are signs of explicit and indirect influences ofintellectual heritage of his predecessors and contemporaries to the extent that hislyric poems can be considered the result of cultural and ideological intertextuality.Salman Savoji is one of the prominent poets by whom Hafez has been influencedin terms of content and words. To confirm this hypothesis, the intellectual andideological content reflected in the lyric poems of the two poets has been studiedand explored with regard to the themes of “Qalandari”, “Rendi”, and “Meghan”.Results of this research indicate that the themes of “Qalandar”, “Rendi”, and“Moghaneh” in the sonnets of both poets include such things as pretending to beimmoral, discrediting religion, and rejecting the manifestations of Sharia,pretending to be non-Islamic, extension to Zahid and Sufi, presence in infamousplaces and indifference to becoming disgraced. By consciously disturbing thecommon norms of the religious community, the two poets have introduced a newvalue system and succeeded in creating different types of values. By creating ademarcation between value/anti-value, they have redefined the moral andepistemological presuppositions of their audiences, which has been a novel, if notunique, approach to literary and cognitive thought at the age which was highlymonologic. In achieving this goal and disrupting established semantic norms, theuse of terms related to the Mehri and Zoroastrian religions (Mogh, Deyr-eMoghan, Moghan alley, Mey, Meykadeh, Ruins, Khomkhaneh, etc.) has beeneffective

Surrealism is automatic writing, inscribing and writing freely, i.e. without the dominance of intellect; it is the expression of inductive thought without the supervision of wisdom and regardless of any artistic or ethical oversight. It can be said that this school is the result of the growth of psychology in the 20th century and, hence, psychological encounters with literature. Surrealists called the relationship between mind and the real thing the objective accident. The effects and instances of this objective crash which is based on reality will be clearly seen in epics as its echoes are woven into the mythological, epic and literary structure of Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh. The purpose of this article is examining the surrealistic explanation of the dream and prediction of reality and objective crash in Ferdowsi''''''''s Shahnameh through an analytical, descriptive approach, which has been reviewed and explained. The main question of this research is the frequency of the objective accident index and its differences with the surreal elements of dreams and predictions. Research findings indicate that the application of sleep and dreams are 17 times, star counting and predicting 35 times and passing through the reality or objective accident 9 times, as a completely surrealistic indicator in Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh. Objective accidents on characters such as Siavash, Goodarz, Keikhosro, Afarsiab, Katayun, Yazdgerd, Khosrowparviz and Yazdgerd, the last Sasanian king. The realization of the dream of these people and seeing it with one’s eyes is the same difference between sleep and dreams and predictions with an objective accident in Shahnameh.

Symbolism is a term used to describe the conceptual and symbolic meanings of an object. It is important to consider that the symbol from the perspective of rhetorical sciences is a word, phrase, or sentence that, in addition to the apparent meaning, communicates a wide range of meanings to the reader. On the other hand, the main problem with the symbol is that the symbol is one of the forms of poetic imagination, which is in a position beyond metaphor due to the multiplicity of concepts and the wide semantic capacity that it has. In a symbol, a word, in addition to preserving its true meaning, contains one or more non-real (virtual) meanings. The purpose of this article is to study the symbol of the sun (sunshine) in the works of Attar Nishapuri, which has been done through a descriptive-analytical method. Findings of the research show that in Attar’s works, the sun has been used to convey sacred meanings and codes such as Hazrat Haqq, perfect man, description of the man and his life, unity of existence and mortality in truth, and description of prophets and soul and psyche.

Apocalyptic literature is a kind of literature based on apocalyptic prophecies. This type of literature expresses what will happen in the end of the world and studies issues such as the apocalypse, resurrection, catastrophe, savior, and so on. Existing examples of this type of literature can be seen in Persian poetry today. The present article examines the themes of apocalypse in contemporary Iranian poetry. In this apocalyptic study, the emergence of a savior, death, resurrection and eternity have been studied as components of the apocalypse. Examining the poems of Ahmad Shamloo, Forough Farrokhzad, Mehdi Akhavan Sales and Sohrab Sepehri, it became clear that in most cases there is a pessimistic and despairing view among these poets about the fate of the world and the future of history. In the poetry of these poets, the tools of sleep, dream and poetic inspiration have been used for revelation. At the same time, these space discoveries are mysterious, ambiguous and mixed with fantasy.

The subject of "evil" is one of the most important topics in theology and culture and has appeared in the literature of different nations in different ways and through variety of techniques. Rumi's works, as one of the greatest writers and thinkers of the Islamic Middle Ages and Shakespeare’s, the great poet and writer of the Renaissance, have given certain artistic aspects to this theology that are prone to analysis and comparison, especially from a poetic point of view. The differences in cultural, historical and religious origins between these two thinkers, of course, have been effective in their techniques, in different conceptualizations, and have been reflected in their works. In The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms, Cassirer introduced the earlier forms of Kantian cognition into the field of analysis of human culture and, using Hegelian historiography, began to formulate the forms of the history of cognition that began with myth and reached higher forms of religious, mystical, artistic and scientific cognition. For him, symbolism is the only road map for the study of culture. Comparative studies, meanwhile, is a field of fertility that can be aided by Cassirer's theoretical framework. The method of the present research is descriptive-analytical and is based on Cassirer's theory of "symbolic forms of cognition". Also, using his theory on the analysis of symbolic structures in the form of narrative constructs, we try to show how allegorical and tragic techniques in the concept of evil are shown in the stories of Moses and Al-Khidr and Macbeth.